A Comprehensive Overview of Scholarly Definitions of Literature

Throughout history, scholars across various disciplines, including literary theory, philosophy, and cultural studies, have debated the definition of literature. While there is no single universally accepted definition, there is a broad agreement that literature refers to written works that possess artistic or intellectual value. These works encompass a wide range of genres, such as poetry, fiction, drama, and essays, often dealing with universal themes such as human nature, society, and morality.

Foundational Perspectives

Aristotle

Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle is considered one of the foundational texts for Western literary theory with his work Poetics. Aristotle defined literature primarily in terms of tragedy, but his principles apply more broadly to literature in general:

Literature as Imitation

According to Aristotle, literature is an imitation mimesis of life, human actions, or nature. Tragedy, in particular, aims to represent actions that stir emotions such as pity and fear, leading to a purification or catharsis of these emotions. Aristotle emphasized that literature, especially poetry, represents human experience in an artistic form shaped by the author's vision.

Literature as Art

Aristotle also highlighted the artistic nature of literature, suggesting that great works of literature are more than just reflections of individual expression. They represent a balance between the cyclical nature of human actions and the dynamic process of human experience.

Matthew Arnold

19th-century English critic Matthew Arnold described literature as a vehicle for intellectual and moral development, emphasizing its role in high culture:

Literature as Cultural Excellence

Arnold's view places literature at the center of a cultural and intellectual pursuit, suggesting that literary works serve as a means to enhance individuals' understanding and development.

T.S. Eliot

Modernist poet and critic T.S. Eliot argued that literature is not just a reflection of individual expression, but also part of a broader tradition:

Literature as Tradition

Eliot believed that great literature is a conversation with past works. He emphasized the importance of literary tradition in shaping the creative process, suggesting that understanding literature requires an awareness of its place within the larger cultural and historical framework.

Literature as Objective Correlative

Eliot also proposed that poetry and literature in general should express emotion through symbols or images rather than relying on subjective or personal expression. This idea suggests that literature connects emotions with specific artistic forms, allowing for broader interpretations and meanings.

F.R. Leavis

F.R. Leavis was a key figure in the development of New Criticism, emphasizing the moral and emotional power of literature:

Literature as a Moral Force

Leavis argued that the value of literature lies in its ability to shape moral consciousness. He believed that great works provide insights into the human condition and offer moral education.

Focus on Close Reading

Leavis also emphasized close reading, a detailed, careful analysis of the text itself. According to him, literature should be studied for its intrinsic qualities, such as language structure and form, without being overly influenced by external contexts like the author's biography.

Formalist Perspectives

Russian Formalism

The Russian Formalists, such as Viktor Shklovsky and Roman Jakobson, viewed literature as a distinct form of language and communication:

Literature as Defamiliarization

Shklovsky argued that the purpose of literature is to make familiar things strange, fostering a heightened sense of perception and appreciation. The technique of defamiliarization involves using stylistic devices to create a fresh perspective on familiar topics or objects.

Literature as Structure and Form

The Formalists were more concerned with how literature works, its form, structure, and use of language. They focused on how literary techniques such as metaphor, rhythm, and narrative structure create meaning and evoke aesthetic responses, highlighting the formal elements that contribute to the literary experience.

Structuralist Perspectives

Literature as Language

Structuralism, influenced by thinkers like Claude Lévi-Strauss and Roland Barthes, viewed literature as a system of signs:

Literature as Language

For structuralists, literature is a form of language that functions according to rules, codes, and structures that can be analyzed. Barthes, for example, argued that literature operates within a mythological system of signs and symbols that reflect broader cultural and social meanings.

Literature as a Textual Network

Structuralism emphasizes the interrelationships between elements within a text, how meaning is generated through these relationships, rather than through individual authorial intent or reader interpretation. This perspective highlights the structural dynamics that underpin literary texts.

Poststructuralist Perspectives

Jacques Derrida

Poststructuralists, such as Jacques Derrida, argue that meaning in literature is not fixed and is constantly shifting:

Literature as Play of Meaning

Derrida suggested that literary texts do not convey stable, unambiguous meanings. Instead, meaning is produced through a play of signs that never fully cohere. This view challenges traditional assumptions of literature as conveying fixed truths or simple messages.

Deconstruction

Derrida's approach to literary texts focuses on how language constructs meaning and how this construction is inherently unstable. Literary works are seen as complex, open-ended, and resistant to simple interpretation, highlighting the fluidity and ambiguity inherent in literary meaning.

Postcolonial and Feminist Perspectives

Postcolonial Theory

Postcolonial theorists, such as Edward Said and Homi Bhabha, examine literature in relation to power structures, identity, and cultural dominance:

Literature as Ideology and Power

Postcolonial theorists argue that literature often reflects the dominant ideologies of the time, particularly those related to race, imperialism, and national identity. They view literature as a tool that can reinforce or challenge colonial and cultural power dynamics.

Feminist Theory

Feminist theorists see literature as a space where gender roles and identities are constructed and contested:

Literature as Gender and Identity

Feminist theorists focus on how women or other marginalized groups are represented in literature and how literature can either reinforce or subvert patriarchal norms. They examine literary works to uncover the ways in which gender is constructed and how it interacts with power structures.

Cultural Studies and Literary Criticism

Raymond Williams and Stuart Hall

Scholars in the field of Cultural Studies, such as Raymond Williams and Stuart Hall, view literature as part of broader cultural practices:

Literature as a Cultural Product

Literature is not seen in isolation but as deeply embedded in cultural, social, and historical contexts. Works of literature reflect, shape, and sometimes challenge the values, beliefs, and power relations of the society in which they are produced.

Literature as a Form of Communication

Cultural studies scholars focus on how literature interacts with other cultural forms such as film, media, and music to produce meaning and influence society, emphasizing the intertextual nature of cultural production.

Conclusion: What is Literature?

Across these various schools of thought, there is a consensus that literature is a form of artistic or intellectual expression that uses language to communicate complex ideas, emotions, and experiences. Whether it is seen as a reflection of human nature, an aesthetic achievement, or a product of cultural forces, literature serves as a means of exploring the world and human experience. However, its precise nature—whether as imitation, artistic creation, or social commentary—depends on the theoretical perspective one adopts.

Ultimately, literature is multifaceted: it can be viewed as a mirror of society, a vehicle for moral or intellectual growth, a cultural product, or a means of exploring the complexities of identity, power, and meaning. Understanding these diverse perspectives can enrich our appreciation and interpretation of literary works.